Simple Summary This study examined the skull characteristics of Holstein and Simmental cattle to provide reference values for future research. We collected 54 skulls of young male cattle from Turkey to conduct 27 measurements and calculate eight indices. Holstein skulls tended to be longer, though not markedly, but they exhibited notably longer nasal bones and shorter skull lengths. Holsteins also had wider faces. A statistical analysis showed that overall size differences did not separate the breeds, but certain skull features did. Simmental skulls had higher basal index values and wider occipital regions, likely due to their larger skull size and weight, which provides more space for muscle attachment. Holsteins had more oval-shaped eye sockets, while Simmentals had wider, rounder ones. These findings help identify breed-specific traits and offer insights into how each breed’s skull structure supports their functions. This knowledge is valuable for breeding and conservation, and future research should look into the genetic and environmental factors influencing these traits. Abstract This study aimed to reveal the morphological characteristics of pure Holstein and Simmental skulls and to obtain reference values for morphometric analysis. Moreover, 54 skulls from 12- to 14-month-old male Holstein (n = 25) and Simmental (n = 29) cattle were collected from Turkey’s Southeastern Anatolia Region between 2023 and 2024. Linear measurements indicated that Holsteins had longer skulls compared to Simmentals. Holsteins exhibited significantly higher values for the greatest length of nasals and the shortest skull length. The facial breadth was wider in Holsteins and statistically distinctive between the breeds. Holsteins had a more oval orbital bony roof, while Simmentals exhibited a wider orbital structure. The orbital index was higher in Holsteins, distinguishing between the two breeds. It was observed that Simmental cattle had a wider occipital region. This difference is likely due to the larger lateral appearance of the Simmental skull, which has more body weight and provides a larger surface area for muscle attachment. These differences not only aid in breed identification but also offer insights into the functional adaptations of each breed. Future research should explore the genetic and environmental factors contributing to these morphological traits, further enriching our knowledge of cattle morphology and its implications for breeding and conservation efforts.

Abstract: Veterinary practice commonly involves caring for domestic and companion animal. Since the trend of owning exotic pets is rapidly increasing, veterinarians often treat exotic patients as well. As a result, veterinarians are facing increased demands for specialized skills and knowledge. This article aims to provide a concise review of the anatomy of the vascular system in exotic animals and its relevance in clinical practice. Snakes, lizards and chelonians have 3-chambered heart with 2 atria and one partially divided ventricle whereas crocodiles have 4-chambered heart. It is important to consider these characteristics during the anesthesia in reptiles since blood shunting affects changes in blood pressure, oxygen level and other anesthetic parameters. In birds, the cardiovascular system is crucial in enduring the exhausting physical activities such as swimming, flying or diving and running. Birds have renal portal system which consists of cranial and caudal renal portal vein. The recommendation of avoiding drug application in the hindlimbs of birds is present for a long time. This is valid not only for birds, but for reptiles, amphibians and most fish. The ventricle of amphibians is trabeculated, which minimizes blood shunting through various anatomical and physiological features. During biphasic systole, the left and right side of the ventricle contract separately, directing blood in different parts of aortic arches. Due to the complexity of the exotic animals, thorough education added in veterinary curricula is needed. Keywords: amphibians, birds, cardiovascular, clinical, reptiles

Simple Summary The aim of this study was to analyze and compare the morphology of root canals in the carnassial teeth of German shepherds and mixed-breed dogs. Knowledge of the morphology of root canals is essential for a successful endodontic procedure. It has been determined that an apical delta, which represents a complex structure that consists of multiple cavities whose purpose is to allow the passing of nerves and blood vessels from the pulp cavity to the apex of the root, was present in 247 roots. There are four main types of apical delta. The most common type in superior fourth premolars was type II, with up to 10 apical ramifications, whereas type IIIA, with 10–20 apical ramifications, was most commonly present in inferior first molars. Abstract Root canal treatment of carnassial teeth in dogs is a common endodontic technique which aims to re-establish or maintain the health of the periapical tissues. In total, 43 dogs were used in this study. Root canal morphology was evaluated in 86 superior fourth premolars and 86 inferior first molars. Apical delta was present in 247 roots, while obliteration of the root canal was found in 11 roots. The most common type of apical delta of the roots of superior fourth premolars was type II, with up to 10 apical ramifications, while type IIIA, with 10–20 apical ramifications, was most commonly present in the roots of inferior first molars. Considering that knowledge of the morphology of root canals is essential for a successful endodontic procedure, the aim of this study was to analyze and compare the morphology of root canals in the carnassial teeth of German shepherds and mixed-breed dogs. Apical resection for the purpose of endodontic therapy of the superior fourth premolar and the inferior first molar is indicated at a length of 4 to 6 mm from the anatomical tip of the roots, which would completely remove the apical delta of these two teeth.

Minerals are essential substances with an important function in livestock, and their disbalance negatively affects the health and production, especially of ruminants. The addition of fat to the rations of dairy cows impacts the overall and mineral metabolism, and thus on health and production. The aim of the research was to examine the correlative relationships between balanced production meals and the mineral status of lactating cows with different ration compositions with or without the presence of vegetable oil. The research was conducted on 30 dairy cows of the Holstein breed at the Butmir farm, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Three groups of 10 animals were formed based on productivity (A, 13-15 kg of milk/day, B, 19-21 kg of milk/day and C, 25-27 kg of milk/day). Samples of feed, blood plasma and milk of animals were collected on three occasions a 3-week intervals. According to the feed analysis results, the rations were standardized for each group, given for three weeks without oil,and then for three weeks with the addition of sunflower oil in the amount of 2.5% of the ration dry matter. After determining the content of basic nutrients, dry matter and ash in the rations, the concentrations of Ca, Mg, Na and K were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry,while the colorimetric method was used to analyse P according to Woy and Eggertz-Finkener. Analysis of blood mineral parameters was performed spectrophotometrically. The content of fat, proteins, lactose, and non-fat dry matter in milk samples was determined by infrared spectrometry using an automatic analyser. Based on the results, we observed a similarity in changes of values and the statistical significance of the differences in plasma Ca, P and Mg between the study groups and at sampling intervals. Milk production was positively correlated with the concentration of Mg and Ca with addition of the sunflower oil to the meal, while no correlation coefficient was established for P in any of the samplings. Balanced meals with and without the addition of oil did not significantly affect the content of Ca, P or Mg in the blood plasma of the tested animals, nor were significant differences found between the groups. However, by determining the correlations between milk parameters and blood biochemical parameters, a significant positive correlation was established between the amount of milk and Ca and Mg levels with a diet supplemented by oil. Given that the addition of sunflower oil in the amount of 2.5% of dry matter of the balanced rations for cows had no negative effects on the mineral profile and the parameters of the tested animals, we conclude that the introduction of this oil could be useful both from the economic point and improving nutritional composition of milk as an animal food present in the daily human diet.

Simple Summary The aim of the study was to determine the morphological and morphometrical features of the auditory ossicles in the red fox. Moreover, for the first time, shape analysis was performed on all the middle ear bones by geometric morphometry. The auditory ossicles play a vital role in transmitting sound waves through the middle ear. The malleus was considered to be the largest bone, with three distinctive processes. The overall shape of the incus was found to be similar to that in other mammals. The presence of a prominent muscular process was noted on the head of the stapes and the convex base which closes the window of the inner ear. Abstract The use of carnivores as experimental models in auditory biology has led to a significant improvement regarding our understanding of the structure and function of the ear. Considering that data regarding the anatomy of the middle ear in the red fox are rare, this study aimed to describe the morphological and morphometrical features of the auditory ossicles in the red fox, as well as to provide their shape characteristics by geometric analysis. Nine adult red foxes were used in the study. The malleus, incus and stapes were extracted from the middle ear, prepared, photographed and measured using the software. For the geometric analysis, 19 landmarks were used. Following Principal Component Analysis (PCA), PC1 was found to explain approximately half of all variance (incus: 49.97%; malleus: 49.93%; stapes: 58.49%). The study demonstrated the similar anatomical organization of the auditory ossicles in line with important morphometric and basic geometric data, which can contribute to this field and add a useful perspective to the literature.

The use of digital teaching resources became widespread and very helpful during the COVID‐19 pandemic as an alternative to a traditional course with cadavers. Technologies such as augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), 3D models, video lectures and other online resources enable three‐dimensional visualization of the anatomical structures and allow students to learn more interactively. The aim of this study was to compare students' performance in the traditional anatomical courses in teaching neuroanatomy and technology‐based learning methods such as video lectures, 3D models and 3D printed specimens. Four groups of first‐year students of Veterinary Faculty established for the practical classes during the academic year 2021/2022 took part in this research. The total number of students participating in this research was 72. Each group attended separately the theoretical lecture with a demonstration based on a different technique; the control group used formalized specimens, while the three experimental groups used video lectures, 3D models and 3D printed specimens, respectively. Subsequently, all groups completed the same questionnaire testing their short‐term memory of the neuroanatomical structures. After four weeks students were tested for their long‐term memory of the neuroanatomy lecture with the follow‐up test containing an identical list of questions. The test scores using video lectures and 3D printed models were significantly higher compared with the group that learned in the traditional way. This study suggests that alternative approaches such as technology‐based digital methods can facilitate memorization of anatomical terms and structures in a more interactive and sensory engaging way of learning.

Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections remain one of the most prevalent and important issue affecting ruminants worldwide. Until date, the majority of GIN control has relied on the administra-tion of chemical anthelmintic medications on a regular basis, in recent years, the problem of anthel-mintic resistance has reached new heights where it can no longer be ignored as a major issue in the control of parasites of livestock. Anthelmintics are generally used at farmers' discretion, with no restrictions to access to commercially available drugs and without any assistance from veterinarians. Thus, inadequate use of anthelmintics is not rare, animals are often treated excessively, interfering with production, accelerating selection of resistant parasites, and posing significant problems for the ruminant industry. The unusually high frequency of multi-drug resistance (MDR) in sheep and goat nematodes threatens the sustainability of small-ruminant enterprises in several parts of the world. Although resistance in horses and cattle nematodes has not yet reached the levels reported in small ruminants, data shows that resistance issues, particularly MDR worms, are rising in these hosts. Both innovative non-chemical parasite control methods and molecular tests capable of detecting resistant worms are urgently needed. Keywords: Anthelmintics; Multidrug resistance; Gastrointestinal nematodes; Ruminants; Preva-lence