Gastrointestinal nematodes, particularly Haemonchus contortus, represent a major threat to ruminant health and productivity worldwide, largely due to the widespread emergence of anthelmintic resistance. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, benzimidazole resistance has previously been confirmed in domestic ruminants; however, data on wildlife remain lacking. Given the frequent spatial and temporal overlap between domestic and wild ruminants on shared pastures, this study aimed to investigate the occurrence of benzimidazole-resistant H. contortus genotypes within a multi-host system. During the 2024/2025 season, a total of 111 abomasal samples were collected from sheep (n = 20), lambs (n = 12), goats (n = 17), roe deer (n = 40) and chamois (n = 22) across four localities in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Laktaši, Banja Luka, Modriča and Višegrad). Adult H. contortus specimens were morphologically identified and confirmed using real-time quantitative PCR (rt-qPCR). Benzimidazole resistance was assessed by allele-specific rt-qPCR targeting the F200Y mutation in the β-tubulin isotype 1 gene. Statistically significant interspecies differences in β-tubulin genotype distribution were observed (p < 0.05), primarily driven by variation in the homozygous resistant (RR) genotype. High RR prevalence was detected in sheep (60%), lambs (50%) and roe deer (52.5%), whereas lower proportions were observed in chamois (27.3%) and goats (23.5%). Overall, 44.1% of all analyzed H. contortus isolates carried homozygous resistant alleles, indicating an advanced stage of benzimidazole resistance within this multi-host system. These findings demonstrate that benzimidazole resistance in H. contortus is not confined to domestic livestock but is also present in wild ruminants sharing the same grazing areas, consistent with circulation of resistant parasites within shared grazing systems.

Introduction With their remarkable flight capabilities, wild and captive birds play a pivotal role in the global dissemination of zoonotic pathogens including Chlamydia psittaci, Avian Influenza viruses (AIV), Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), Usutu virus (USUV), and West Nile virus (WNV). They function both as hosts and reservoirs responsible for transporting the mentioned infectious agents across vast geographic regions. Additionally, captive birds and birds inhabiting urban environments, particularly in tourist destinations, present significant public health concerns due to facilitated close interactions with humans. Methods A total of 358 samples originating from fifteen bird species were collected across 21 locations in Sarajevo Canton, over three consecutive years (2022–2024). Upon collection, the samples were subjected to molecular analysis to detect the presence of zoonotic pathogens. For detection of Chlamydia spp., and C. psittaci, real-time PCRs (qPCR) were used following established protocols. Additionally, reverse transcriptase real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) were utilized for the detection of emergent viral pathogens including avian influenza viruses, Chikungunya, Usutu, and West Nile virus. Results Chlamydia spp. was detected in 29.9% (95% CI: 25.2–34.9) of samples. Further, C. psittaci was identified in 10.3% (95% CI: 5.2–17.7) of positive samples originating from captive birds and birds inhabiting urban environments. One sample (0.3%) originating from a wild bird was positive to West Nile Virus. None of the samples tested positive for Avian Influenza viruses, Chikungunya and Usutu virus. Discussion The identification of C. psittaci and West Nile virus highlights the increased likelihood of zoonotic transmission. This underscores the imperative for bolstered biosecurity measures and public health strategies aimed at mitigating the risk associated with both environmental exposure and direct contact, especially in areas characterized by substantial tourist activity.

Abstract Background Toxoplasmosis, caused by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, is often linked with reproductive disorders in humans and animals. Despite this, its presence in animals in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FB&H) remains undocumented. Objectives This study aimed to investigate the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection among domestic pigs in FB&H, assess associated risk factors for parasite transmission and provide insights into optimal management and biosafety practices for the pig industry. Methods A two‐phase random sampling approach was employed to select 87 pig farms across 10 administrative regions in FB&H. A total of 437 pigs were sampled and tested for anti‐T. gondii antibodies using an indirect ELISA kit. Epidemiological data on potential risk factors were collected through a standardised questionnaire and analysed using logistic regression models. Results The animal‐level seroprevalence was found to be 13.3% (95% CI = 10.4–16.8), with 44.8% of farms testing positive for T. gondii (95% CI: 34.8–55.3). Identified risk factors included exposure to cats, repeated occurrences of abortions within a single breeding season, swill feeding, type of housing, and type of operation. The robust association observed between recurrent abortions and Toxoplasma seropositivity indicates a significantly greater potential involvement of T. gondii in reproductive disorders among pigs in FB&H than previously acknowledged. Conclusions This study provides the first report on T. gondii infection in animals in FB&H, highlighting the need for further research to explore its presence in other meat animals and meat products consumed in the region. The findings underscore the importance of biosafety measures in mitigating T. gondii transmission and call for enhanced surveillance and management strategies in FB&H's pig industry.

Anthelmintic resistance in livestock is a growing concern worldwide, with significant implications for animal health and agricultural productivity. This study explores the perceptions of veterinarians and farmers in Bosnia and Herzegovina regarding the factors contributing to anthelmintic resistance in Haemonchus contortus nematodes. Data were collected through structured questionnaires completed by 106 veterinarians and 188 farmers in 2022 and 2023. The analysis focused on self-reported therapeutic practices, farm management and environmental variables. Logistic regression, including Firth’s penalized approach, was used to assess associations between these perceived factors and the reported occurrence of resistance. Notably, combination anthelmintic treatments were perceived as a significant risk factor (OR > 49.3), while higher altitude was seen as potentially protective (OR = 0.10). Routine prophylactic deworming was associated with an increased likelihood of perceived resistance (OR = 173.7), whereas staying informed about newly registered products was perceived as protective (OR = 0.34). Although the findings are based on the self-reported perceptions and practices of veterinarians and farmers, they align with globally recognized trends and offer the first structured insights into factors perceived to contribute to anthelmintic resistance in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This study underscores the importance of awareness and responsible anthelmintic use and the need for improved diagnostics and ongoing education to combat anthelmintic resistance.

Ixodid ticks are present throughout the Western Balkan countries, including Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia, with many species serving as vectors for pathogens of both veterinary and medical importance. We have conducted a thorough examination of existing literature, encompassing historical documents, to collect information on all documented non-zoonotic tick-borne pathogens found in ticks, pets, farm animals and wild animals across the Western Balkan region. A comprehensive review was necessary due to the scarcity and scattered nature of available data from this area. The tick fauna in the Western Balkans consists of 32 species across five genera: Ixodes, Haemaphysalis, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus and Hyalomma. Various pathogens responsible for diseases in animals, including bacteria and parasites, have also been documented, many of which can cause important diseases and significant reductions in animal productivity. Initial efforts were directed towards pathogen surveillance and the characterisation of non-zoonotic tick-borne pathogens, resulting in the identification of Theileria orientalis, Anaplasma bovis and Anaplasma marginale in cattle, although significant gaps remain in the current research. Studies on small ruminants have been sparse, with confirmed cases of Anaplasma ovis and Babesia ovis in sheep, but no comprehensive and systematic research on pathogens in goats. In contrast, research on canine piroplasms has identified several species, including Babesia canis and Babesia vulpes. Studies on wild animals, however, have predominantly focused on wild canines and carnivores, with limited attention given to non-zoonotic pathogens. Notably, only one study has reported non-zoonotic tick-borne pathogens in artiodactyl species and wild felids. This review is a much needed overview of existing research on non-zoonotic tick-borne diseases in the Western Balkans, including the historical context, current data and research gaps. Given the significant impact of these diseases on animal health and productivity, as well as their potential biodiversity, further comprehensive studies and the establishment of national surveillance systems for tick-borne diseases are essential for a better understanding and mitigation of their impact.

The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which led to the COVID-19 pandemic, has significantly impacted global public health. The proper diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection is essential for the effective control and management of the disease. This study investigated the SARS-CoV-2 infection using RT-qPCR tests from laboratories in Bosnia and Herzegovina. We performed a retrospective study of demographic data and Ct values from 170,828 RT-qPCR tests from April 2020 to April 2023, representing 9.3% of total national testing. Samples were collected from 83,413 individuals across different age groups. Of all tests, 33.4% were positive for SARS-CoV-2, with Ct values and positivity rates varying across demographics and epidemic waves. The distribution was skewed towards older age groups, although lower positivity rates were observed in younger age groups. Ct values, indicative of viral load, ranged from 12.5 to 38. Lower Ct values correlated with higher positive case numbers, while higher Ct values signaled outbreak resolution. Additionally, Ct values decreased during epidemic waves but increased with the dominance of certain variants. Ct value-distribution has changed over time, particularly after the introduction of SARS-CoV-2 variants of interest/concern. Established Ct value trends might, therefore, be used as an early indicator and additional tool for informed decisions by public health authorities in SARS-CoV-2 and future prospective pandemics. Moreover, they should not be overlooked in future epidemiological events.

Simple Summary Ticks are ectoparasites with medical significance. They inhabit diverse environments and maintain close interactions with numerous vertebrate hosts. Ixodes ticks can transmit various pathogens to animals and humans. The aim here was to examine Ixodes ticks from Bosnia and Herzegovina to check for specific pathogens. This study found Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in ticks from domestic animals. These findings highlight the need for the ongoing monitoring of ticks and tick-borne pathogens to protect animal and public health. Additionally, this study provides valuable insights into the occurrence and spread of these pathogens, emphasizing the importance of broader surveillance and control measures. Effective prevention, surveillance, and control of tick-borne diseases require urgent regional and international collaboration. Abstract Limited information is available regarding the presence of tick-borne pathogens and their distribution within Ixodes species in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This study aimed to identify Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) in Ixodes ticks collected from domestic and wild animals and vegetation in different regions across Bosnia and Herzegovina. A total of 7438 adult ticks, including 4526 Ixodes ricinus, Ixodes canisuga, and Ixodes hexagonus, were collected. Real-time PCR screening of 450 pooled I. ricinus samples revealed a 22.1% infection rate with at least one pathogen. Rickettsia spp. (6.3%) were found in ticks from dogs, cats, and goats, Babesia spp. (3.1%) in ticks from dogs and cattle, A. phagocytophilum (8.8%) in ticks from dogs, goats, and cattle, and B. burgdorferi s.l. (3.4%) in ticks from dogs and cats. Mixed infections with B. burgdorferi s.l. and A. phagocytophilum, as well as B. burgdorferi s.l. and Rickettsia spp., were found in two pools of I. ricinus from dogs and cats, respectively. Additionally, co-infection with Rickettsia spp. and A. phagocytophilum was confirmed in three tick pools from dogs and goats. Each tick from these pooled samples was individually retested to confirm the presence of pathogens. In the examined pooled samples of I. canisuga (1) and I. hexagonus (6), none of the tested pathogens were detected. Our findings represent the first detection of Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp., A. phagocytophilum, and B. burgdorferi s.l. in I. ricinus collected from domestic animals and vegetation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Considering the established infection rates, the detection of tick-borne pathogens in adult ticks collected from domestic animals and vegetation enriches the current knowledge of the presence of tick-borne pathogens at the local, regional, national, and broader levels.

Dermacentor (D.) reticulatus ticks carry and transmit a wide range of pathogens to vertebrate hosts. Limited information is available about the existence of emerging tick-borne pathogens and the distribution of D. reticulatus in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The study aimed to investigate the occurrence and distribution of D. reticulatus and to detect the presence of Anaplasma spp., Borrelia (B.) burgdorferi s.l., Rickettsia spp., and Babesia spp. in samples originating from questing ticks and ticks collected from domestic animals in various regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A total of 402 collected D. reticulatus ticks were widely distributed throughout the country. Of the 41 pools consisting of 205 individual D. reticulatus ticks, 21 (51.2%) indicated the presence of Rickettsia spp., 17 (41.4%) of Babesia spp., 2 (4.8%) of Anaplasma spp., and 1 (2.4%) of B. burgdorferi s.l. after real-time PCR screening. Our study indicates that D. reticulatus has significantly expanded its distribution and host range in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Moreover, our results represent the first detection of Babesia spp. in D. reticulatus in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Given the demonstrated presence of emerging pathogens in questing and feeding ticks, there is an urge to establish a surveillance system for ticks and tick-borne pathogens in Bosnia and Herzegovina.