AIM To assess the psychological health of war-traumatized children in different foster settings and compare them with children living with one or both parents, 7 years after the 1992-1995 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. METHOD The study was carried out in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in March 2002. We assessed 186 (93 girls and 93 boys) elementary school children aged 12.7-/+1.8 years for war trauma, presence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and depression. There were 38 (14 girls) children from the government orphanage, 48 (24 girls) children from the non-governmental organization (NGO) SOS Children's Village, 50 (24 girls) children who lost a parent in the war but lived with the surviving parent, and 50 (31 girls) children who lived with both parents. For data collection, we used Children's Posttraumatic Stress Reaction Index and Children's Depression Inventory. Basic sociodemographic data were also collected. RESULTS Of 186 children, 90 (48.4%) had been forced into refuge because of the war. Loss of a family member was most frequent among children in the SOS Children's Village, who also experienced the highest number of other types of trauma. PTSD was present in 51.6% of 186 children, with the highest prevalence among children in the SOS Children's Village (39/48). PTSD prevalence was higher among children who lost a parent but lived with the surviving parent (29/50) then among children in the orphanage (15/38) or children living with both parents (13/50) (chi(2)(3)=33.075, P<0.001). Depression was present in 42 of 186 (22.6%) children, but with no statistical difference among the groups (chi(2)(3)=6.337, P=0.096). The prevalence of PTSD and depression was similar in boys and girls. Loss of a parent was associated with higher frequency of PTSD and depression. The loss of both parents was associated with high prevalence of PTSD, but not depression. Prevalence of PTSD was positively correlated with the prevalence of depression (Spearman's rho=0.188; P=0.01). CONCLUSIONS All children experienced war trauma and many had psychological consequences. The highest prevalence of PTSD, often comorbid with depression, was found among children who lost one or both parents. The children with the lowest rate of psychological disturbances were those living with both parents.

Bladder, bowel and sexual dysfunction are not rare in multiple sclerosis (MS). The most frequent bladder disorders are in urgency, frequency as well as retention. In this study we analyzed bladder dysfunction (urgency, frequency and retention), defecation (constipation and incontinence) as well as sexual problems (libido, erection and vaginal lubrication) in patients with relapsing-remitting form of multiple sclerosis (MS) depending on disability status. Concerning Expanded Diasability Status Score (EDSS), patients have been divided in two groups: EDSS 0-4.5. (Group A), and EDSS 5.0-10.0 (group B). We analyzed 60 patients: 35 (58.3%) women, and 25 (41.7%) men. In both group A and B, with no bladder disorder was 18 patients (30%). In group A: 15 (25%); in group B: 3 (5%). With urgent incontinence were 36 (60%) patients - group A: 19 (31%); group B: 17 (28%). With retention were 6 (10%) patients - group A: 4 (6.6%); group B: 2 (3.3%). There is no statistical significant difference in number of patients with and with no urinary problems in both groups (p>0.05). Of all analyzed patients in group A and B with no urinary disorders were 9 men (15%) and 9 women (15%). With urinary problems were 16 men (26.7%) and 26 women (43.3%). Statistically it is significant higher number of women than men (p<0.05). With no defecation problems were 54 (90%) patients - in group A: 36 (60%); in group B: 18 (30%). With constipation were 5 (8.3%) - in group A: 2 (3.3%); in group B 3 (5%). In group B one patient (1.6%) had incontinence. There is no statistical significant difference in number of patients with and with no bowel elimination dysfunction in both groups p>0.05). 12 (20%) men had no bowel elimination problems and 24 women (40%), but 10 (16.6%) men and 8 (13.3%) women had the bowel elimination dysfunction. There is no statistical significance (p>0.05). No libido disturbance had 44 (73.3%) patients. In the group A: 35 (58.3%); in group B: 9 (15%). 16 (26.7%) patients had the libido disturbances. In group A: 3 (5%); in group B 13 (21.6%). Statistically there is significant lower number of patients with libido problems in group A (p<0.05). No vaginal lubrication had 21 (35%) women. In group A: 18 (30%); in group B 3 (5%). Vaginal lubrication disturbance had 14 (23.3%). In group A: 7 (11.6%); in group B 7 (11.6%). Statistically it is significant lower number of women with no lubrication in group B (p<0.05). No erection problems had 11 (18.3%) men. In group A: 9 (15%); in group B 2 (3.3%). Erection disturbance had 14 (23.3%). In group A: 4 (6.6%); in group B: 10 (16.6%). There is statistical significant lower number of men with erection problems in group A. (p<0.05). Of all analyzed patients in both groups A and B 18 men (30%) and 26 (43%) women had no problems with libido and 7 (11.6%) men and 9 (15%) women had the problems. There is no statistical significance in sex distribution (p>0.05). 11 (18.3%) men had no erection problems, 14 (23.3%) had the problems. 21 (35%) women had no vaginal lubrication problems, 14 (23.3%) women had the problems. Erection disturbances are not statistically significant to vaginal lubrication problems (p>0.05).

Mental health is not considered only as absence of mental disorders, but rather as the achievement of higher standards of available psychical potentials. True devotion and obedience to The God give the one a huge and incredible strength, constant source of spiritual emotional and moral energy, which is of help in resisting destructive and slavery attacks of the environment and its materialistic-consuming tendencies, as well as social and mental disruption. According to the opinion of numerous worldwide recognized mental health experts, humankind of today is confronted with a number of problems, which are the consequence of spiritual and moral-ethical degradation of human being. Therefore, religiosity became the field of interest of mental health researchers. The results of new studies undoubtedly indicate beneficial effects of religion on life and mental health in humans. Religiosity reduces tendencies for risky behaviour, impulsive reactions and aggression; it corrects tendencies towards psychopathic and paranoid behaviour, reduces converse, depressive and schizoid tendency, and provides successful overcome of emotional conflicts. In comparison to low-religious adolescents, the factors such as inner conflicts, frustration, fear, anxiety, psychological trauma, low self-esteem, unbalance of psychical homeostasis, emotional instability, and negative psychical energy are less present in highly religious adolescents and neutralized in a healthier and more efficient way. Beneficial impact of religion on mental health derives from precise cognitive-behavioural patterns, which provide a clear life orientation, solid basis and safe frames for personality development, assuring human to be continually on the way to achieve its own generic essence and reach its own maturity and self-actualization.

Cultural differences in body dissatisfaction, the relationship of stress to body dissatisfaction and individual and cultural body ideals were investigated. Forty-eight United States women and 48 Bosnian women completed the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ), the Impact of Event Scale (IES), and a Body Figure Rating Scale. When Body Mass Index was controlled, United States women demonstrated more body dissatisfaction and chose smaller cultural ideal body sizes than Bosnian women, but did not differ on personal ideal body size ratings. Furthermore, stress was only related to body dissatisfaction for Bosnian women. Additional research is needed to further elaborate the body dissatisfaction differences as they relate to cultural values.

AIM To estimate the frequency, type, and severity of psychological trauma among Bosnian refugee adolescents during the process of repatriation after the 1992-1995 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. METHODS A sample of 239 pupils (120 girls and 119 boys), with a mean age (+/-standard deviation) of 15.2+/-2.1 years were assessed for war traumatic events, acculturation and repatriation maladjustments, school behavioral problems, and presence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The sample consisted of adolescents who were in the process of repatriation after exile in a foreign country (n=120) and internally displaced adolescents (n=119). RESULTS Adolescents who had been exposed to severe psychological war trauma still had high level of trauma more than three years after the end of war. The level of recalling traumas they experienced (mean+/-standard deviation=3.9+/-1.2 on a scale from 0 to 5) and frequency of PTSD symptoms (1.5+/-1.0 on a scale from 0-5) were significantly lower among repatriated than internally displaced adolescents (4.4+/-0.7 and 2.2+/-1.1, respectively; P<0.001). The prevalence of PTSD did not differ between repatriated (56.7%) and internally displaced adolescents (68.1%). Returnees with more acculturation problems reported more functional and relational problems after return but less psycho-emotional dysfunctions. Those who adapted to the culture in the exile country had difficulties in adapting back to the culture in the home country. CONCLUSIONS PTSD was still very frequent among Bosnian refugee adolescents 3.5 years after the end of war. Adolescents who had spent more than five years as refugees in foreign countries had significantly lower level of experienced trauma recall and frequency of PTSD symptoms, as well as less anxious/depressed and withdrawn/depressed behavioral problems, and somatic complaints. Returnees who had more acculturation problems in exile reported more functional and relational problems but less psycho-emotional problems after repatriation. Schools and other institutions involved in the education of adolescents should develop programs to address these issues.