Lava tubes, a common volcanic feature on terrestrial planets, offer critical insights into lava flow processes and may serve as future potential habitats for space crews and other facilities on the Moon and Mars. Seismic detection of these features is challenging as the irregular morphology and rough cave ceilings and walls generate complex seismic wavefields dominated by strong scattering and reverberation rather than pure reflections. Here we present observations of enhanced backscattering in seismic data collected above terrestrial lava tubes. We show that the spatial and frequency characteristics of wavefield intensity can be related to the dimensions of the lava tubes. Our findings suggest that, when geological indicators such as collapse pits are present, this method would enable mapping lava tubes on Earth and, by proxy, on the Moon and Mars, and that the approach is readily adaptable for future planetary exploration.

Analysis of conversions between compressional and shear waves is a workhorse method for constraining crustal and lithospheric structure on Earth; yet, such converted waves have not been unequivocally identified in seismic data from the largest events on the Moon, due to the highly scattered waveforms of shallow seismic events. We reanalyze the polarization attributes of waveforms recorded by the Apollo seismic network to identify signals with rectilinear particle motion below 1 Hz, arising from conversions across the crust‐mantle boundary. Delay times of these converted waves are inverted to estimate crustal thickness and wavespeeds beneath the seismometers. Combined with gravimetric modeling, these new crustal thickness tie‐points yield an updated lunar crustal model with an average thickness of 29–47 km. Unlike previous models, ours include explicit uncertainty estimates, offering critical context for future lunar missions, geophysical studies, and predicting 15–36 km crust at Schrödinger and 29–52 km at Artemis III sites.

Maars are volcanoes with a central crater surrounded by an ejecta ring formed through surface explosive processes from underlying magma interacting with fluids. The study of terrestrial maar volcanoes, as analogs to explosive volcanic vents on the Moon and other planets, can improve our understanding of planetary volcanism and evolution. In this study, we conducted a series of geophysical experiments at Kilbourne Hole Maar, New Mexico, a well‐preserved crater used for both science and crewed exploration lunar analog studies. The surveys included multiple active source seismic lines that sampled the geological units of both the crater rim and floor. We demonstrate the effectiveness of shallow seismic reflection methods integrated with P wave refraction and surface wave analysis to determine the elastic properties and create detailed near‐surface structural models in a terrestrial volcanic setting. The reflection profiles capture the top‐down strata of the crater rim. The velocity changes derived from independent inversions of refraction travel times and surface wave dispersions indicate varying (6–15 m) ash thickness around the rim and reveal the presence of high‐velocity anomalies in possible connection with crater collapse beneath the crater floor. Additionally, we estimate a base surge volume of approximately 6.4×106 $6.4\times {10}^{6}$ m3 ${\mathrm{m}}^{3}$ present on the rim. The integrated results highlight the potential for characterizing the subsurface of planetary bodies in greater detail and provide high‐fidelity data simulations for astronaut training. The operational insights serve as a valuable guideline for future crewed lunar missions and contribute to the development of strategies for optimizing planetary exploration.

Magnetometry is used to detect ferrous objects at various scales, but detecting small-size, compact sources that produce small-amplitude anomalies in the shallow subsurface remains challenging. Magnetic anomalies are often approximated as dipoles or volumes of dipoles that can be located, and their source parameters (burial depth, magnetization direction, magnetic susceptibility, etc.) are characterized using scalar or vector magnetometers. Both types of magnetometers are affected by space weather and cultural noise sources that map temporal variations into spatial variations across a survey area. Vector magnetometers provide more information about detected bodies at the cost of extreme sensitivity to orientation, which cannot be reliably measured in the field. Magnetic gradiometry addresses the problem of temporal-to-spatial mapping and reduces distant noise sources, but the heading error challenges remain, motivating the need for magnetic gradient tensor (MGT) invariants that are relatively insensitive to rotation. Here, we show that the finite size of magnetic gradiometers compared to the lengthscales of magnetic anomalies due to small buried objects affects the properties of the gradient tensor, including its symmetry and invariants. This renders traditional assumptions of magnetic gradiometry largely inappropriate for detecting and characterizing small-size anomalies. We then show how the properties of the finite-difference MGT and its invariants can be leveraged to map these small sources in the shallow critical zone, such as unexploded ordnance (UXO), landmines, and explosive remnants of war (ERW), using both synthetic and field data obtained with a triaxial magnetic gradiometer (TetraMag).

Geophysical measurements, such as seismic experiments, are a key target for scientific activities on planetary surfaces. Dense spatial sampling of such measurements is often desirable, and acquisition is traditionally performed at regular intervals. However, achieving regular and dense spatial sampling is made difficult by obstacles and operational constraints of a planetary surface mission. Here, we present an application of compressive sensing (CS) in the design of seismic surveys on planetary surfaces for imaging the shallow subsurface. This approach is based on more flexible, randomized subsampling and requires fewer sources or receivers compared to traditional methods. We illustrate the potential of CS on synthetic data and measurements made along an active seismic transect across a lunar analog site. We then explore the use of CS‐assisted seismic acquisition at a terrestrial analog site in the San Francisco Volcanic Field. We show how irregularly acquired data can be interpolated to reconstruct data at finer spatial sampling and yield seismic images comparable to those from regularly acquired high‐density data. Finally, we apply our approach to reanalyze the legacy data collected by the Active Seismic Experiments during the Apollo 14 and 16 missions. The results show that the CS method can recover missing data and increase the amount of data available for refraction analysis. Our study highlights the potential of CS in future planetary surface exploration missions for (a) an order‐of‐magnitude improvement in survey efficiency and (b) improved imaging quality to gain a deeper understanding of the geologic processes of planetary bodies.

The Pacific large low-shear-velocity province (LLSVP), as revealed by cluster analysis of global tomographic models, hosts multiple internal anomalies, including a notable gap (~20° wide) between the central and eastern Pacific. The cause of the structural gap remains unconstrained. Directly above this structural gap, we identify an anomalously thick mantle transition zone east of the East Pacific Rise, the fastest-spreading ocean ridge in the world, using a dense set of SS precursors. The area of the thickened transition zone exhibits faster-than-average velocities according to recent tomographic images, suggesting perturbed postolivine phase boundaries shifting in response to lowered temperatures. We attribute this observation to episodes of Mesozoic-aged (250 to 120 million years ago) intraoceanic subduction beneath the present-day Nazca Plate. The eastern portion of the Pacific LLSVP was separated by downwelling because of this ancient oceanic slab. Our discovery provides a unique perspective on linking deep Earth structures with surface subduction.

We provide observational evidence that suggests the presence of a molten silicate layer above the core of Mars, which is overlain by a partially molten layer, indicating that the core of Mars is smaller than previously thought. The detection of deep reflected S waves on Mars inferred a core size of 1,830 ± 40 km (ref. ^ 1 ), requiring light-element contents that are incompatible with experimental petrological constraints. This estimate assumes a compositionally homogeneous Martian mantle, at odds with recent measurements of anomalously slow propagating P waves diffracted along the core–mantle boundary^ 2 . An alternative hypothesis is that Mars’s mantle is heterogeneous as a consequence of an early magma ocean that solidified to form a basal layer enriched in iron and heat-producing elements. Such enrichment results in the formation of a molten silicate layer above the core, overlain by a partially molten layer^ 3 . Here we show that this structure is compatible with all geophysical data, notably (1) deep reflected and diffracted mantle seismic phases, (2) weak shear attenuation at seismic frequency and (3) Mars’s dissipative nature at Phobos tides. The core size in this scenario is 1,650 ± 20 km, implying a density of 6.5 g cm^−3, 5–8% larger than previous seismic estimates, and can be explained by fewer, and less abundant, alloying light elements than previously required, in amounts compatible with experimental and cosmochemical constraints. Finally, the layered mantle structure requires external sources to generate the magnetic signatures recorded in Mars’s crust.

On 4 May 2022 the InSight seismometer SEIS‐VBB recorded the largest marsquake ever observed, S1222a, with an initial magnitude estimate of MWMa ${M}_{W}^{\mathrm{M}\mathrm{a}}$ 4.6. Understanding the depth and source properties of this event has important implications for the nature of tectonic activity on Mars. Located ∼37° to the southeast of InSight, S1222a is one of the few non‐impact marsquakes that exhibits prominent surface waves. We use waveform modeling of body waves (P and S) and surface waves (Rayleigh and Love) to constrain the focal mechanism, assuming a double‐couple source, and find that S1222a likely resulted from reverse faulting in the crust (source depth near 22 km). We estimate the scalar moment to be 2.5 × 1015–3.5 × 1015 Nm (magnitude MW 4.2–4.3). Our results suggest active compressional tectonics near the dichotomy boundary on Mars, likely due to thermal contraction from planetary cooling.

Gravity inversions have contributed greatly to our knowledge of the interior of planetary bodies and the processes that shaped them. However, previous global gravity inversion methods neglect the inference of mantle density anomalies when using techniques to decrease the non‐uniqueness of the inversion. In this work, we present a novel global gravity inversion algorithm, named THeBOOGIe, suited to inferring global‐scale density anomalies within the crust and mantle of planetary bodies. The algorithm embraces the nonuniqueness inherent in gravity inversions by not prescribing at the outset a density interface or depth range of interest. Instead, the method combines a Bayesian approach with a flexible incorporation of prior geological or geophysical information to infer density anomalies at any depth. A validation test using synthetic lunar‐like gravity data shows that THeBOOGIe can constrain the lateral location of crustal density anomalies but tends to overestimate their thicknesses. Importantly, THeBOOGIe can detect deep mantle density anomalies and quantify the level of confidence in the inferred density models. Our results show that THeBOOGIe can provide complementary information to one‐dimensional seismic models of the interior of the terrestrial planets and the Moon by constraining density anomalies that are not spherically symmetric. Additionally, THeBOOGIe is specially suited to constraining the interior of partially differentiated bodies where these large‐scale density anomalies are more likely to exist. Finally, thanks to the flexible use of priors, THeBOOGIe is an essential tool to understand the interior of planetary bodies lacking additional constraints.

We report observations of Rayleigh waves that orbit around Mars up to three times following the S1222a marsquake. Averaging these signals, we find the largest amplitude signals at 30 and 85 s central period, propagating with distinctly different group velocities of 2.9 and 3.8 km/s, respectively. The group velocities constraining the average crustal thickness beneath the great circle path rule out the majority of previous crustal models of Mars that have a >200 kg/m3 density contrast across the equatorial dichotomy between northern lowlands and southern highlands. We find that the thickness of the Martian crust is 42–56 km on average, and thus thicker than the crusts of the Earth and Moon. Considered with the context of thermal evolution models, a thick Martian crust suggests that the crust must contain 50%–70% of the total heat production to explain present‐day local melt zones in the interior of Mars.

Significance Mars has a liquid iron alloy core at its center. Using seismic data gathered by the InSight mission, we have made the first observations of seismic waves traveling through Mars’ core. We use the travel times of core-transiting seismic waves, relative to ones which remain in the mantle, to constrain properties of the core and construct the first models of the elastic properties of the entire planet. Our results are consistent with a core rich in sulfur, with smaller fractions of oxygen, carbon and hydrogen.

Using seismic recordings of event S1222a, we measure dispersion curves of Rayleigh and Love waves, including their first overtones, and invert these for shear velocity (VS) and radial anisotropic structure of the Martian crust. The crustal structure along the topographic dichotomy is characterized by a fairly uniform vertically polarized shear velocity (VSV) of 3.17 km/s between ∼5 and 30 km depth, compatible with the previous study by Kim et al. (2022), https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abq7157. Radial anisotropy as large as 12% (VSH > VSV) is required in the crust between 5 and 40 km depth. At greater depths, we observe a large discontinuity near 63 ± 10 km, below which VSV reaches 4.1 km/s. We interpret this velocity increase as the crust‐mantle boundary along the path. Combined gravimetric modeling suggests that the observed average crustal thickness favors the absence of large‐scale density differences across the topographic dichotomy.

The largest seismic event ever recorded on Mars, with a moment magnitude of 4.7 ± 0.2, is the first event to produce both Love and Rayleigh wave signals. We measured their group velocity dispersion between about 15 and 40 s period and found that no isotropic depth‐dependent velocity model could explain the two types of waves wave simultaneously, likely indicating the presence of seismic anisotropy. Inversions of Love and Rayleigh waves yielded velocity models with horizontally polarized shear waves traveling faster than vertically polarized shear waves in the top 10–25 km. We discuss the possible origins of this signal, including the preferred orientation of anisotropic crystals due to shear deformation, alignment of cracks, layered intrusions due to an impact, horizontal layering due to the presence of a large‐scale sediment layer on top of the crust, and alternation of sedimentation and basalt layers deposits due to large volcanic eruptions.

The most distant marsquake recorded so far by the InSight seismometer occurred at an epicentral distance of 146.3 ± 6.9o, close to the western end of Valles Marineris. On the seismogram of this event, we have identified seismic wave precursors, i.e., underside reflections off a subsurface discontinuity halfway between the marsquake and the instrument, which directly constrain the crustal structure away (about 4100−4500 km) from the InSight landing site. Here we show that the Martian crust at the bounce point between the lander and the marsquake is characterized by a discontinuity at about 20 km depth, similar to the second (deeper) intra-crustal interface seen beneath the InSight landing site. We propose that this 20-km interface, first discovered beneath the lander, is not a local geological structure but likely a regional or global feature, and is consistent with a transition from porous to non-porous Martian crustal materials. The authors show that the Martian crust, ~4300 km from the InSight landing site, has a subsurface interface similar to that beneath the lander, suggesting it is a regional or global feature that may be related to the closure of pore spaces at depth.

We detected surface waves from two meteorite impacts on Mars. By measuring group velocity dispersion along the impact-lander path, we obtained a direct constraint on crustal structure away from the InSight lander. The crust north of the equatorial dichotomy had a shear wave velocity of approximately 3.2 kilometers per second in the 5- to 30-kilometer depth range, with little depth variation. This implies a higher crustal density than inferred beneath the lander, suggesting either compositional differences or reduced porosity in the volcanic areas traversed by the surface waves. The lower velocities and the crustal layering observed beneath the landing site down to a 10-kilometer depth are not a global feature. Structural variations revealed by surface waves hold implications for models of the formation and thickness of the martian crust. Description An insightful impact On 24 December 2021, the seismometer for the InSight mission on Mars detected a large seismic event with a distinct signature. Posiolova et al. discovered that the event was caused by a meteor impact on the surface of Mars, which was confirmed by satellite observations of a newly formed 150-kilometer crater. The surface nature and size of the impact allowed Kim et al. to detect surface waves from the event, which have yet to be observed on Mars. These surface waves help to untangle the structure of the Martian crust, which has various amounts of volcanic and sedimentary rock, along with subsurface ice, in different regions of the planet (see the Perspective by Yang and Chen). The characteristics of the impact itself are important because they provide a seismic fingerprint of an impact event that is different from the marsquakes observed so far. —BG A new crater formed on the surface of Mars was detected with the seismometer on the InSight mission.