The optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) is a primary test and measurement instrument for detecting, localizing, and qualifying various fiber optic link events induced by breaks, splices, and connectors. However, in spite of a number of innovative enhancements of the OTDR capabilities proposed throughout decades of its use in the communications test application area, few reports can be found about extending the OTDR capabilities beyond detecting and qualifying refractive and reflective events of the fiber under test, to also include prediction of performance and impairments specifically related to the coherent optical orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (CO-OFDM) symbol transmission over fiber link. As large enough OTDR dynamic range (DR) provides alike optical signal-to-noise-ratio (OSNR) even at the far end of the fiber, then the dominantly reflective OTDR trace pattern can be considered as the two-way power-delay profile (PDP) of the fiber. Furthermore, in this work, we also justifiably assume that the cyclic prefix (CP) is applied to guard the OFDM symbol against inter-symbol interference, as well as that the (formerly eventually large) peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) is significantly reduced, e.g., by simple peak clipping at the transmitter. This finally retains the OFDM carrier frequency offset (CFO) as the major OFDM-inherent signal impairment to dominantly determine the bit error rate (BER) floor in this case. Accordingly, in our model, we abstracted the CFO by the additional delays added to the original OTDR trace pulses, which would produce an equal BER increase as the CFO does with the original trace. Inversely, this enables indirect estimation of CFO by simple BER testing, rather than by using dedicated and complex test instrumentation such as vector signal analyzer (VSA), not always at hand in field conditions.

Every attempt to access to the Internet through a Web browser, email sent, VPN connection, VoIP call, instant message or other use of telecommunications systems involves cryptographic techniques. The most commonly applied technique is asymmetric cryptography, which is generally executed in the background without the user even being aware. It establishes a cryptographic code based on the computational complexity of mathematical problems. However, this type of cryptography, which is widely used in today’s telecommunications systems, is under threat as electronics and computing rapidly develop. The development of fifth-generation cellular networks (5G) is gaining momentum, and given its wide field of application, security requires special attention. This is especially true faced with the development of quantum computers. One solution to this security challenge is to use more advanced techniques to establish cryptographic keys that are not susceptible to attack. An essential part of quantum cryptography, Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) uses the principles of quantum physics to establish and distribute symmetric cryptographic keys between two geographically distant users. QKD establishes information-theoretically secure cryptographic keys that are resistant to eavesdropping when they are created. In this paper, we survey the security challenges and approaches in 5G networks concerning network protocols, interfaces and management organizations. We begin by examining the fundamentals of QKD and discuss the creation of QKD networks and their applications. We then outline QKD network architecture and its components and standards, following with a summary of QKD and post-quantum key distribution techniques and approaches for its integration into existing security frameworks such as VPNs (IPsec and MACsec). We also discuss the requirements, architecture and methods for implementing the FPGA-based encryptors needed to execute cryptographic algorithms with security keys. We discuss the performance and technologies of post-quantum cryptography, and finally, examine reported 5G demonstrations which have used quantum technologies, highlighting future research directions.

In this paper, error performance analysis for M-ary phase shift keying (PSK) system in the inverse gamma two-ray with diffuse power (IG/TWDP) composite fading channel is presented. Using Fourier series approach, the average symbol error probability (ASEP) expression is derived in terms of hypergeometric functions, which can be evaluated using standard software packages. Derived expression is used to investigate degradation of error performance cased by shadowing, in regard to those obtained by considering only the TWDP multipath fading. All obtained results are verified by Monte-Carlo simulation.

: QKD integration into traditional telecommunication networks is anticipated in the upcoming decades in order to maintain adequate levels of communication security. QKD establishes ITS (Information-Theoretic secure) symmetric keys between the two parties, which they may use to sustain secure flow of data even in the post-quantum era. Since QKD-keys are a valuable and scarce resource, they must be carefully maintained. This paper investigates DoS attacks on actual QKD equipment, in which an adversary with access to QKD services depletes the reserves of QKD-keys maintained at the KMS system. As a result, safety precautions are proposed in order to prevent this scenario and maintain operational QKD service.

A QKD network can be considered an add-on technology to a standard communication network that provides IT-secure cryptographic keys as a service. As a result, security challenges resulting in the suspension of functional work must be addressed. This study analyzes a Denial of Service (DoS) attack on the Key Management System (KMS), one of the critical components of the QKD network in charge of key management and key provisioning to authorized consumers. Through simulation methods performed in the QKDNetSim, we show that legitimate customers experience significantly worse service during an excessive DoS attack on KMS.

Optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) has long been and is still considered the main test tool for characterizing fiber optic links, i.e. identify and localize refractive and reflective events such as breaks, splices and connectors, and measure their insertion/return loss. Specifically, sufficient dynamic range and thus alike signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) enable clear far-end visibility even of long fiber links. Moreover, under such conditions, the highest achievable optical bit-error-rate (BER) floor is to the large extent determined by major reflective events such as the specific trace distortion caused by connectors and splices, each with significant return loss. Realizing this has provided the opportunity window to extend the standard OTDR capabilities list by the appropriate trace postprocessing to predict the BER floor. Accordingly, considering the SNR high, and thereby the inter-symbol interference dominant error generating mechanism, we applied the time-dispersion channel model that determines the BER floor by the rms delay spread of the (fiber) channel power-delay profile. We verified the BER floor prediction in the exemplar practical test situation, by measuring the actual BER on the same fiber link, and found the obtained values well matching the OTDR based predicted ones. Furthermore, when no dominant reflective events are identified on the OTDR trace, it implies very small time dispersion allowing the OFDM symbol cyclic prefix to always prevent inter-symbol interference. This retains the CFO to solely determine the residual BER floor and vice versa, enabling indirect estimation of CFOinduced phase distortion by simple BER testing. With this regard, we abstracted CFO with the AWGN being justified by the Central Limiting Theorem to enable efficient and quite accurate short-term BER (and so CFO phase error) predictions.

Optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) enables simple identification and localization of a plethora of refractive and reflective events on a fiber link, including splices, connectors and breaks, and measuring insertion/return loss. Specifically, large enough OTDR dynamic range (DR) and thus high signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) enable clear far-end visibility of longer fibers. We point out here that, under such conditions, the optical bit-error-rate (BER) floor is dominantly determined by reflective events that introduce significant return loss. This complements the OTDR legacy tests by appropriate optical BER floor estimation in the field. As high SNR implies inter-symbol interference as dominating error generating mechanism, we could apply the classical time-dispersion channel model for the optical BER floor determined by the root-mean-square (rms) delay spread of the actual fiber channel power-delay profile. However, as the high-SNR condition is not always fulfilled mostly due to insufficient DR, we propose here inserting a low-noise optical preamplifier as the OTDR front-end to reduce noise floor and amplify the backscattered signal. In order to verify the model for the exemplar test situation, we measured BER on the same fiber link to find very good matching between the measured BER floor values and the ones predicted from the OTDR trace.

Optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) has long been and is still considered the main test tool for characterizing fiber optic links, i.e. basically identify and localize refractive and reflective events such as breaks, splices and connectors, and measure their insertion/return loss. Specifically, sufficient dynamic range and thus alike signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) enable clear far-end visibility even of long fiber links. Moreover, under such conditions, the highest achievable optical bit-error-rate (BER) floor, is to the large extent determined by major reflective events such as the specific trace distortion caused by connectors and splices, each with significant return loss. Realizing this has provided the opportunity window to extend the standard OTDR capabilities list by the appropriate trace postprocessing to predict the BER floor. Accordingly, considering the SNR high, and thereby the inter-symbol interference dominant error generating mechanism, we applied the time-dispersion channel model that determines the BER floor by the rms delay spread of the (fiber) channel power-delay profile. We verified the BER floor prediction in the exemplar practical test situation, by measuring the actual BER on the same fiber link, and found the obtained values well matching the OTDR - based predicted ones.

Optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) is used to characterize fiber optic links by identifying and localizing various refractive and reflective events such as breaks, splices, and connectors, and measuring insertion/return loss and fiber length. Essentially, OTDR inserts a pulsed signal into the fiber, from which a small portion that is commonly referred to as Rayleigh backscatter, is continuously reflected back with appropriate delays of the reflections expressed as the power loss versus distance, by conveniently scaling the time axis. Specifically, for long-distance events visibility and measurement accuracy, the crucial OTDR attribute is dynamic range, which determines how far downstream the fiber can the strongest transmitted optical pulse reach. As many older-generation but still operable OTDR units have insufficient dynamic range to test the far-end of longer fibers, we propose a simple and cost-effective solution to reactivate such an OTDR by inserting a low-noise high-gain optical preamplifier in front of it to lower the noise figure and thereby the noise floor. Accordingly, we developed an appropriate dynamic range and distance span extension model which provided the exemplar prediction values of 30 dB and 75 km, respectively, for the fiber under test at 1550 nm. These values were found to closely match the dynamic range and distance span extensions obtained for the same values of the relevant parameters of interest by the preliminary practical OTDR measurements conducted with the front-end EDFA optical amplifier, relative to the measurements with the OTDR alone. This preliminary verifies that the proposed concept enables a significantly longer distance span than the OTDR alone. We believe that the preliminary results reported here could serve as a hint and a framework for a more comprehensive test strategy in terms of both test diversification and repeating rate, which can be implemented in a network operator environment or professional lab.

Microwave line-of-sight radio relay (RR) systems are a constitutive part of a telecom operator transport network, as an alternative to optical transmission systems when the latter are not technically possible or rational to implement. Nowadays, RR links are quite often used in the access network for connecting mobile radio base stations, thus also enabling traffic aggregation, and so on. In this paper, we focus on a practical, real-life, five-section heterogeneous RR network, comprising classic synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) and SDH new generation network (NGN) architecture, hybrid parallel and mutually independent transmission of native Ethernet and TDM services, and all-IP network parts. Specifically, the main task of this work is to answer whether such a diverse RR system could satisfy the quality norms for Ethernet-based services, meaning whether a tolerable RR unavailability will necessarily imply the according Ethernet quality of service (QoS) degradation. This question is addressed by the comprehensive in-service and out-of-service testing of an operational hybrid RR transmission system. After extensive practical testing and appropriate analysis of the achieved results, it came out that the impact of RR-level impairments that determine the performance prediction affected the Ethernet QoS to the extent that BER values increased to the acceptability threshold values. We believe that the preliminary results reported here could serve as a hint and a framework for a more comprehensive cross-layer test strategy in terms of both test diversity and repeating rate, which contemporary network operators need to implement in order to enable the appropriate quality of experience for users of their services.