The objective of this study was to investigate causal associations between cattle farms’ management practices and reproductive disorders (abortion, stillbirth, retention of placenta, metritis). Besides, direct causal associations between farms’ management and reproductive infections (Chlamydia abortus, Coxiella burnetii, and Neospora caninum), reproductive disorders and infections were also investigated in this study. As a secondary objective, constraints that affect the production in cattle farms were examined. The study was carried out in the north-western (Una-Sana), western (Canton 10) and central part (Central Bosnia Canton) of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A total of 201 farms were selected for participation. A semi-structured questionnaire-based interview was conducted among farmers/managers from January 1st to August 31st, 2015. The 40 questions were divided into three groups: socio-demographic, management, and information on reproductive performances in cattle. Supplementary questions were asked about the perceived primary constraints of the production. A multivariable mixed-effects logistic regression was used to screen management factors for potential statistical influence. All investigated outcomes were associated with farms’ management. The final multivariable models were merged into a Structural Equation Model (SEM). The causal model was then specified graphically. The SEM model showed that herds that experienced abortions (OR=4.3) and stillbirth (OR=6.7) were associated with N. caninum seropositivity. Also, herds that experienced retention of placenta were strongly associated with the occurrence of metritis (OR=10.1). C. abortus and C. burnetii herd seropositivities were mainly associated with environmental factors and contact with potential intermediate hosts. Our study demonstrated that management practices on dairy farms in Bosnia and Herzegovina contributed to the occurrence of severe reproductive outcomes and reproductive infections. N. caninum seems to be an infectious agent that substantially contributed to the reproductive underperformance. Further we demonstrate the need for using causal models in understanding complex relationships.

Bacillus anthracis is an aerobic, Gram-positive and spore-forming bacterium, which causes anthrax in herbivores. Humans get infected after coming into contact with infected animals' products. An unmatched case–control study was conducted to identify the importance of demographic, biological and/or behavioural factors associated with human cutaneous anthrax outbreaks in the hotspot areas of Northern Tanzania. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to both cases and controls. The age range of participants was 1–80 years with a median age of 32 years. In the younger group (1–20 years), the odds of being infected were 25 times higher in the exposed group compared to the unexposed group (OR= 25, 95% CI = 1.5–410). By contrast, the odds of exposure in the old group (≥20 years) were three times lower in the exposed group compared to the unexposed group (OR = 3.2, 95% CI = 1.28–8.00). Demographic characteristics, sleeping on animal's skins, contacting with infected carcasses through skinning and butchering, and not having formal education were linked to exposure for anthrax infection. Hence, a One Health approach is inevitable for the prevention and control of anthrax outbreaks in the hotspot areas of Northern Tanzania.