Aim To determine the relationship between coagulation disorders and septic condition in COVID-19 critically ill patients. Methods Data from 99 patients who presented with COVID-19 acute hypoxemic respiratory failure (CAHRF) were divided into two groups: Group 1- patients who developed sepsis, and Group 2 - patients who developed septic shock. Age, sex, comorbidities, quick Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA) score, vasopressor and inotrope requirement, laboratory findings (platelets, neutrophils, lymphocytes, procalcitonin - PCT, C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, D-dimer, sepsis-induced coagulopathy - SIC, and disseminated intravascular coagulation - DIC score) were recorded on the day of admission and on the day of starting invasive mechanical ventilation. The primary outcome was to establish COVID-19 associated coagulopathy with sepsis and septic shock; the secondary outcome measure was incidence of coagulopathy in septic COVID-19 critically ill patients. Results The most common coagulation abnormality was international normalized ratio (INR) (p=0.019) for Group 2, followed by the values of inflammatory parameters PCT (p=0.002) and lymphocytes (p=0.011) also for Group 2. The statistical significance of SIC score was observed for both groups (p=0.007) and p=0.012, respectively. Norepinephrine (p=0.000) and dobutamine (p=0.000) for Group 2, qSOFA for both groups (p = 0.000) were statistically significant. Conclusion The observed coagulation abnormalities met the criteria for a SIC diagnosis, therefore, the management of coagulation disorders at this stage of the disease should follow the management of a septic condition.

Aim To evaluate the predictive significance of the red blood cell distribution width (RDW) >14.5 at admission to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) on outcome parameters: length of hospital stay (LOHS), incidence of hospital mortality, 30-day mortality and 30-day survival after hospital discharge in unselected (surgical and non-surgical) critically ill patients. Methods A total of 325 surgical and non-surgical critically ill patients were divided based on the RDW value at admission to the ICU into two groups: Group 1 (RDW >14.5) and Group 2 (RDW ≤14.5). Demographic and clinical parameters, laboratory findings,treatment and outcome parameters were compared between the groups. The predictive significance of RDW>14.5 on outcome parameters was analysed using linear regression analysis and univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis, as appropriate. Results In Group 1, LOHS was higher (19.77±15.15; p<0.000) as was the prevalence of hospital mortality (46.6%; p<0.0523), while 30-day survival after hospital discharge was lower (52.9%; p>0.026) compared to Group 2. RDW >14.5 was positively linearly related (r=0.64; r2=0.40; p=0.000) with LOHS. RDW >14.5 predicted the prevalence of in-hospital mortality with a 73.7% positive predictive value (AUC 0.62; sensitivity 70.1%; specificity 59.5%; p<0.05) and 30-day survival after hospital discharge with a 34.5% negative predictive value (AUC 0.45; sensitivity 58.3%; specificity 68.7%; p<0.05). Conclusions RDW value >14.5 at admission to the ICU can predict prolonged hospital stay, higher mortality and lower survival rate. RDW >14.5 may be an inexpensive and widely available early warning to redirect diagnostic and therapeutic decisions and improve outcomes.

Introduction: Preoperative carbohydrate oral (CHO) drinks attenuate the surgical stress response; however, the effects of CHO supplementation on the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) as an inflammatory and immunology-based predictor remain unclear. This study evaluated the effects of preoperative CHO loading on NLR values and complications following open colorectal surgery compared with a conventional fasting protocol. Methods: Sixty eligible participants having planned for routine and open colorectal cancer surgery from May 2020 to January 2022 were prospectively and randomly allocated to either the control (fasting) group, whose members discontinued oral intake beginning the midnight before surgery, or the intervention (CHO) group, whose members consumed a CHO solution the night before surgery and 2 h prior to anaesthesia. NLR was assessed at 06:00 h before surgery (baseline) and at 06:00 h on postoperative days 1, 3, and 5. The incidence and severity of postoperative complications were assessed by Clavien-Dindo Classification up to postoperative day 30. All data were analysed using descriptive statistics. Results: Postoperative NLR and delta NLR values were significantly higher in controls (p < 0.001; p < 0.001). Control group participants also demonstrated grade IV (n = 5; 16.7%, p < 0.01) and grade V (n = 1; 3.3%, p < 0.313) postoperative complications. There were no major postoperative complications in the CHO group. Conclusion: Preoperative CHO consumption reduced postoperative NLR values and the incidence and severity of postoperative complications following open colorectal surgery, compared with a preoperative fasting protocol. Preoperative carbohydrate loading may improve recovery following colorectal cancer surgery.

Aim: The aim of the study was to compare the analgesic effects of ketamine over fentanyl combined with propofol in analgesia-based elective colonoscopy with purpose of patient safety and satisfaction. Methods: This is a double-blinded prospective randomized controlled trial. Ninety patients were included and randomized to either fentanyl-propofol (Group FP, n: 30), ketamine-propofol (Group KP, n: 30) or propofol-control group (Group C, n: 30). Group FP patients received fentanyl and propofol, Group KP received ketamine and propofol and Group C, propofol. In all groups, incremental doses of propofol were used to maintain a Ramsay sedation score (RSS) of 5. Respiratory depression and hemodynamic parameters were monitored for the first minute and every 5 min during endoscopy. Fifteen minutes after the procedure, the degree of pain was assessed using a visual analog scale (VAS), the quality of recovery according to the Aldrete score (ARS), complications during and after the procedure and additional doses of propofol were recorded. Results: Mean arterial pressure (MAP) at 5 and 30 min (p < 0.05), heart rate (HR) at 15, 25 and 30 min (p < 0.05) and peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2) at 30 min (p < 0.05) were statistically significant for Group FP. Desaturation (*p = 0.033), and weakness (*p = 0.004) was also significant for Group FP at 20, 25 and 30 min (p < 0.05). Pain was lower assessed for the Group KP according to the VAS (**p = 0.025). Conclusion: In analgesia-based colonoscopy, ketamine provides appropriate analgesia and less incidence of complications compared to fentanyl.

Aim To investigate analgesic and side effects of different doses of fentanyl in combination with propofol for colonoscopy. Methods This prospective randomized double-blind study conducted between 2019 and 2020 included 64 patients. Patients were randomized: Group 1 (fentanyl 0.5 μg/kg) and Group 2 (fentanyl 1.0 μg/kg) both in combination with propofol. Ramsay sedation score (RSS) was obtained at 5 with an additional dose of propofol. The primary outcome was the patient's postprocedural pain and adverse events during and after the procedure. Results The RSS means were statistically lower for Group 2 at the beginning and every 5 minutes of the procedure. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) for Group 2 (first, 5, 25 and 30 min) was significantly lower (p=0.000, and heart rate (HR) was significantly higher for Group 1 (during the entire procedure) (p=0.000) than in another group; peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2 ) was significantly lower for measurements within both groups (Group 1, 5, 10, 15 min; Group 2, 5, 10,15 min) (p=0.000 and p=0.000, respectively). Anxiety (p=0.010), weakness (p=0.000) and confusion (p=0.023) proved to be significantly higher for Group 1, and hypotension (p=0.001) for Group 2 than in another group. No statistical significance of Visual Analogue Pain Scale (VAS) (p=0.501) and Aldrete recovery score (ARS) (p=0.845) was found. Conclusion There was no significance in postprocedural abdominal pain between the group of patients administered fentanyl at a dose of 0.5 μg/kg and the group of patients administered fentanyl at a dose of 1.0 μg/kg; however, prevalence of complications was more significant in the group with a fentanyl at a dose of 0.5 μg/kg.

Objective: This study aimed to determine the relationship between one of the most commonly used anesthesia techniques, ketaminebased sedation, on the value of adenoma detection rate (ADR) during colonoscopy screening. Methods: This prospective, observational study included 140 patients, who underwent a standard colonoscopy preparation before the procedure. Sedation regimens included ketamine at 0.5 mg/kg and propofol at 0.5 mg/kg. Additional doses of propofol were administered at 0.5 mg/kg to maintain the Ramsey Sedation scale. Baseline characteristics, ADR, bowel preparation quality according to the Chicago bowel preparation (CHBP) scale, cecal intubation, colonoscopy removal, and complications were analyzed. Results: The mean age of patients was 55.76 years; 40 (28.6%) were males and 100 (71.4%) were females. The ADR was 43.57%, wherein 15.71% in males and 27.86% in females. There were 43.6% adenomas, 17.9% biopsies, and 22.9% polypectomies. The largest location of adenomas/polyps were in the rectum and sigmoid and ascending colon (p=0.11), a biopsy of the sigmoid colon and ileum (p<0.05), polypectomy of the rectum and sigmoid and ascending colon (p<0.05). The cecal intubation was 93.6% with a withdrawal time that is >6 min in most patients (80%) (p<0.05). The CHBP scale showed good bowel preparation (p<0.05) without complications. Conclusions: Ketamine-based sedation is in good overall correlation with ADR. Therefore, the sedation technique should be included for ADR assessment in the future.

Aim To identify predictive factors related with noninvasive ventilation (NIV) failure that are not based on the patient's respiratory status or acid base gas analyses in COVID-19 critically ill patients, and to create a predictive model of NIV failure. Methods A total of 73 COVID-19 critically ill patients who developed acute respiratory failure and underwent NIV were divided into two groups: Group 1, patients who required endotracheal intubation and invasive mechanical ventilation after NIV and Group 2, patients with successful weaning from NIV. Demographic data, clinical symptoms and signs, clinical index and scores, duration indicators and laboratory data were analysed. Predictive factors of NIV failure were assessed using univariate and multivariate regression analyses followed by the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. Results In the Group 1 (NIV failure) there were 54 (73.97%) patients. Predictive factors for NIV failure were: the presence of dyspnoea on the day of admission at hospital (p<0.05; sensitivity 44.40%; specificity 84.20%), higher radiographic assessment of lung oedema score (RALES) on the day of starting NIV (p<0.009; sensitivity 70.40%; specificity 73.75%), higher length of NIV (p<0.014; sensitivity 48%; specificity 84.10%) and higher urea on the day of starting NIV (p<0.004; sensitivity 70.44%; specificity 73.72%) Conclusion NIV treatment in COVID-19 critically ill patients has a high failure rate. In addition to respiratory parameters, dyspnoea, higher RALES, higher length of NIV and increased urea value could predict NIV failure. These factors should be considered in treatment decision making.

Aim To analyse demographic data, clinical symptoms and signs, laboratory data and comorbidities in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU), mechanically ventilated with fatal outcome. Methods Medical records of 92 patients were retrospectively analysed. Demographic data, clinical symptoms and comorbidities were collected on the day of hospital admission. Clinical signs and laboratory data were collected on the day of hospital admission (T1), on the day of starting non-invasive ventilation (T2), and on the day of starting invasive ventilation (T3). Results Average age of the patients was 60.05 years. Patients over 50 years of age, 71 (77.1%) (p=0.000), and males, 62 (67.4%; p=0.001) were predominant. The most common patient symptoms were exhaustion, myalgia, dyspnoea and cough. Hyperthermia was recorded on the day of hospital admission. Tachycardia, hyperglycaemia, hypoxemia were recorded at all observed study times. The most common comorbidity was hypertension arterialis with a very strong correlation with fatal outcome, followed by diabetes mellitus and chronic heart disease that were moderately correlated with fatal outcome. Conclusion The treatment of COVID-19 patients in ICU with mechanical ventilation has a high failure rate. Demographic data, clinical symptoms and signs as well as accompanying comorbidities can be a significant component in making decisions about diagnostic-therapeutic procedures.

Aim To compare the quality of the conditions for endotracheal intubation and muscle relaxation between rocuronium bromide and vecuronium bromide using the ''timing principle'' method for induction in anaesthesia. The "timing principle" includes the administration of muscle relaxants before the hypnotic agent during induction in anaesthesia. Method Sixty patients who had undergone elective surgery were randomly allocated into two equal groups using muscle relaxants: rocuronium (group R) and vecuronium (group V). The intubation conditions were assessed using Cooper's scoring system, based on jaw relaxation, vocal cords position and response to intubation. The quality of muscle relaxation was evaluated by recording the time of clinical weakness, a count of ''train of four'' (TOF) twitches at intubation, the time of loss TOF response and duration of direct laryngoscopy. Results The intubation conditions were excellent in 100% of patients in the group R versus excellent in 80% and good in 20% of patients in the group V (p<0.05). The time of clinical weakness was statistically significantly shorter in the group R than in the group V (p<0.000). The time of loss of TOF response was statistically significantly shorter in the group R (p<0.000). The absence of TOF twitches (the level of muscle relaxation of 100%) at intubation recorded in 25 (83.3%) patients in the group R versus five (16.7%) patients in the group V (p<0.000). Duration of direct laryngoscopy did not significantly differ between the groups. Conclusion Rocuronium bromide provides better intubation conditions and greater quality of muscle relaxation than vecuronium bromide using ''timing principle'' technique.

Aim To compare intraoperative hemodynamic and respiratory stability and postoperative emergence delirium between two anaesthesia regimens in children (caudal block with intravenous continuous analgosedation versus general endotracheal anaesthesia) and intensity of postoperative pain and quality of postoperative analgesia. Method Forty children aged 2-6 years who underwent lower abdominal surgery were randomized depending on performed anaesthesia into two groups: caudal block with analgosedation (group CB) and general endotracheal anaesthesia (group GA). Intraoperative hemodynamic and respiratory stability were evaluated measuring systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR) and arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2) in preinduction (t0), at the moment of surgical incision (t1), 10 minutes after surgical incision (t2) and at the time of skin suturing (t3). Postoperative emergence delirium was evaluated using Paediatric Anaesthesia Emergence Delirium score (PAED). Postoperative pain was evaluated by Children's and Infants' Postoperative Pain score (CHIPPS). Both scores were recorded every 5 minutes during first half hour postoperatively, additionally after 60 minutes postoperatively for CHIPPS score. Results SBP, DBP and MAP were lower at t1 (p<0.0001), t2 (p<0.05) and t3 (p<0.001) in the group CB. HR was lower at all studied time points (p<0.005) in the group CB. SaO2 was lower in the CB group but comparable with the GA group. PAED and CHIPPS scores were lower at 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 minutes postoperatively (p<0.001) in the CB group. Conclusion Caudal block with analgosedation provides better control of intraoperative hemodynamic conditions, postoperative emergence delirium and postoperative pain than general endotracheal anaesthesia.

Aim To compare intraoperative hemodynamic and respiratory stability and postoperative emergence delirium between two anaesthesia regimens in children (caudal block with intravenous continuous analgosedation versus general endotracheal anaesthesia) and intensity of postoperative pain and quality of postoperative analgesia. Method Forty children aged 2-6 years who underwent lower abdominal surgery were randomized depending on performed anaesthesia into two groups: caudal block with analgosedation (group CB) and general endotracheal anaesthesia (group GA). Intraoperative hemodynamic and respiratory stability were evaluated measuring systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR) and arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2) in preinduction (t0), at the moment of surgical incision (t1), 10 minutes after surgical incision (t2) and at the time of skin suturing (t3). Postoperative emergence delirium was evaluated using Paediatric Anaesthesia Emergence Delirium score (PAED). Postoperative pain was evaluated by Children's and Infants' Postoperative Pain score (CHIPPS). Both scores were recorded every 5 minutes during first half hour postoperatively, additionally after 60 minutes postoperatively for CHIPPS score. Results SBP, DBP and MAP were lower at t1 (p<0.0001), t2 (p<0.05) and t3 (p<0.001) in the group CB. HR was lower at all studied time points (p<0.005) in the group CB. SaO2 was lower in the CB group but comparable with the GA group. PAED and CHIPPS scores were lower at 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 minutes postoperatively (p<0.001) in the CB group. Conclusion Caudal block with analgosedation provides better control of intraoperative hemodynamic conditions, postoperative emergence delirium and postoperative pain than general endotracheal anaesthesia.

Aim To compare the effects of endotracheal tube cuff inflation media, air, saline and alkalinized 2% lidocaine on increase of cuff pressure (CP) during nitrous oxide maintained anaesthesia and on incidence of postoperative throat symptoms (PTS), and to evaluate the incidence of postoperative throat mucosal injuries (PTMI) depending on cuff inflation medium. Methods Ninety patients who had undergone elective surgery were randomly allocated into 3 equal groups per cuff inflation media: air (group A), saline (group S) and alkalinized 2% lidocaine (group L). The CP was monitored immediately after cuff inflation and further 5, 15, 30, 60 and 90 minutes after intubation. The incidence and intensity of PTS, sore throat, hoarseness, dysphagia and cough were evaluated 2, 6 and 24 hours after extubation. The incidence and intensity of PTMI were evaluated 24 hours after exubation using indirect laryngoscopy examination. Results The highest increase of mean CP was recorded in the group A (18.7±4.9), it was significantly lower (6.4±1.1) in the group S, while it remained stable in the group L (0.7±0.7). All PTS occurred less frequently in the group L: sore throat (p<0.001), hoarseness and dysphagia (p<0.05), but the incidence of cough was not significantly different between the groups. The lowest incidence of PTMI was in the group L (p< 0.001). Conclusion The increase of CP contributed to incidence of PTS. The intracuff alkalinized 2% lidocaine was superior to saline and air in the prevention of an increase of CP and reduction of the PTS incidence. There was a strong correlation between the incidence of PTS and PTMI.

Aim To compare intubation conditions and hemodynamic response of two induction regimens, with or without muscle relaxant using a combination of either fentanyl and propofol or propofol and suxamethonium. Methods A total of 80 children aged 4-12 years were enrolled in a prospective randomized double-blinded study. Children were randomly allocated in two equal groups. In group F induction was done with fentanyl and propofol, while propofol and suxamethonium were used in group S. Intubation conditions were assessed using Copenhagen Consensus Score (CCS), based on ease of laryngoscopy, position of vocal cords, degree of coughing, jaw relaxation and limb movements. Systolic blood pressure (SBP),diastolic blood pressure (DBP), mean arterial pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR) were observed at preinduction, postinduction and postintubation at 1, 3 and 5 minute. Results Clinically acceptable CCS was found in 95% of patients in group F versus 100% in group S. Intubation conditions wereexcellent in 85%, good in 10% and poor in 5% of patients in group F. In the group F, signifficantly lower SBP and MAP postinduction and postintubation at 1 and 3 minute, and lower DBP postinduction and postintubation at 1 minute (p<0.05) was found comparing to group S. In group S, significantly higher postinduction and postintubation HR at 1 minute was found comparing to group F (p<0.05). Conclusion Induction combination fentanyl-propofol provide acceptable intubation conditions comparable with suxamethonium in children. This induction regimen ensures better hemodynamic stability associated with endotracheal intubation. It could be recommended for intubation when muscle relaxants are not indicated.